De Re Metallica · Georg Agricola
We assay gold coins in various ways. If there is copper mixed with the gold, we melt them by fire in the same way as silver coins; if there is silver mixed with the gold, they are separated by the strongest aqua valens; if there is copper and silver mixed with the gold, then in the first place, after the addition of lead, they are heated in the cupel until the fire consumes the copper and the lead, and afterward the gold is parted from the silver.
It remains to speak of the touchstone with which gold and silver are tested, and which was also used by the Ancients. For although the assay made by fire is more certain, still, since we often have no furnace, nor muffle, nor crucibles, or some delay must be occasioned in using them, we can always rub gold or silver on the touchstone, which we can have in readiness. Further, when gold coins are assayed in the fire, of what use are they afterward? A touchstone must be selected which is thoroughly black and free of sulphur, for the blacker it is and the more devoid of sulphur, the better it generally is; I have written elsewhere of its nature. First the gold is rubbed on the touchstone, whether it contains silver or whether it is obtained from the mines or from the smelting; silver also is rubbed in the same way. Then one of the needles, that we judge by its colour to be of similar composition, is rubbed on the touchstone; if this proves too pale, another needle which has a stronger colour is rubbed on the touchstone; and if this proves too deep in colour, a third which has a little paler colour is used. For this will show us how great a proportion of silver or copper, or silver and copper together, is in the gold, or else how great a proportion of copper is in silver.
These needles are of four kinds. The first kind are made of gold and silver, the second of gold and copper, the third of gold, silver, and copper, and the fourth of silver and copper. The first three kinds of needles are used principally for testing gold, and the fourth for silver. Needles of this kind are prepared in the following ways. The lesser weights correspond proportionately to the larger weights, and both of them are used, not only by mining people, but by coiners also. The needles are made in accordance with the lesser weights, and each set corresponds to a bes, which, in our own vocabulary, is called a mark. The bes, which is employed by those who coin gold, is divided into twenty-four double sextulae, which are now called after the Greek name ceratia; and each double sextula is divided into four semi-sextulae, which are called granas; and each semi-sextula is divided into three units of four siliquae each, of which each unit is called a grenlin. If we made the needles to be each four siliquae, there would be two hundred and eighty-eight in a bes, but if each were made to be a semi-sextula or a double scripula, then there would be ninety-six in a bes. By these two methods too many needles would be made, and the majority of them, by reason of the small difference in the proportion of the gold, would indicate nothing, therefore it is advisable to make them each of a double sextula; in this way twenty-four needles are made, of which the first is made of twenty-three duellae of silver and one of gold. Fannius is our authority that the Ancients called the double sextula a duella. When a bar of silver is rubbed on the touchstone and colours it just as this needle does, it contains one duella of gold. In this manner we determine by the other needles what proportion of gold there is, or when the gold exceeds the silver in weight, what proportion of silver.
The needles are made:--
The 1st needle of 23 duellae of silver and 1 duella of gold. " 2nd " 22 " " 2 duellae of gold. " 3rd " 21 " " 3 " " " 4th " 20 " " 4 " " " 5th " 19 " " 5 " " " 6th " 18 " " 6 " " " 7th " 17 " " 7 " " " 8th " 16 " " 8 " " " 9th " 15 " " 9 " " " 10th " 14 " " 10 " " " 11th " 13 " " 11 " " " 12th " 12 " " 12 " " " 13th " 11 " " 13 " " " 14th " 10 " " 14 " " " 15th " 9 " " 15 " " " 16th " 8 " " 16 " " " 17th " 7 " " 17 " " " 18th " 6 " " 18 " " " 19th " 5 " " 19 " " " 20th " 4 " " 20 " " " 21st " 3 " " 21 " " " 22nd " 2 " " 22 " " " 23rd " 1 " " 23 " " " 24th " pure gold
By the first eleven needles, when they are rubbed on the touchstone, we test what proportion of gold a bar of silver contains, and with the remaining thirteen we test what proportion of silver is in a bar of gold; and also what proportion of either may be in money.
Since some gold coins are composed of gold and copper, thirteen needles of another kind are made as follows:--
The 1st of 12 duellae of gold and 12 duellae of copper. " 2nd " 13 " " 11 " " " 3rd " 14 " " 10 " " " 4th " 15 " " 9 " " " 5th " 16 " " 8 " " " 6th " 17 " " 7 " " " 7th " 18 " " 6 " " " 8th " 19 " " 5 " " " 9th " 20 " " 4 " " " 10th " 21 " " 3 " " " 11th " 22 " " 2 " " " 12th " 23 " " 1 " " " 13th " pure gold.
These needles are not much used, because gold coins of that kind are somewhat rare; the ones chiefly used are those in which there is much copper. Needles of the third kind, which are composed of gold, silver, and copper, are more largely used, because such gold coins are common. But since with the gold there are mixed equal or unequal portions of silver and copper, two sorts of needles are made. If the proportion of silver and copper is equal, the needles are as follows:--
Gold. Silver. Copper. The 1st of 12 duellae 6 duellae 0 sextula 6 duellae 0 sextula " 2nd " 13 " 5 " 1 " 5 " 1 " " 3rd " 14 " 5 " 5 " " 4th " 15 " 4 " 1 " 4 " 1 " " 5th " 16 " 4 " 4 " " 6th " 17 " 3 " 1 " 3 " 1 " " 7th " 18 " 3 " 3 " " 8th " 19 " 2 " 1 " 2 " 1 " " 9th " 20 " 2 " 2 " " 10th " 21 " 1 " 1 " 1 " 1 " " 11th " 22 " 1 " 1 " " 12th " 23 " 1 " " 13th " pure gold.
Some make twenty-five needles, in order to be able to detect the two scripula of silver or copper which are in a bes of gold. Of these needles, the first is composed of twelve duellae of gold and six of silver, and the same number of copper. The second, of twelve duellae and one sextula of gold and five duellae and one and a half sextulae of silver, and the same number of duellae and one and a half sextulae of copper. The remaining needles are made in the same proportion.
Pliny is our authority that the Romans could tell to within one scripulum how much gold was in any given alloy, and how much silver or copper.
Needles may be made in either of two ways, namely, in the ways of which I have spoken, and in the ways of which I am now about to speak. If unequal portions of silver and copper have been mixed with the gold, thirty-seven needles are made in the following way:--
Gold. Silver. Copper. Duellae. Duellae Duellae Sextulae Sextulae Siliquae. Siliquae. The 1st of 12 9 0 0 3 0 0 " 2nd " 12 8 0 0 4 0 0 " 3rd " 12 7 5
" 4th " 13 8 1/2 2 1/2 " 5th " 13 7 1/2 4 3 1 8 " 6th " 13 6 1/2 8 4 1 4
" 7th " 14 7 1 2 1 " 8th " 14 6 1 8 3 1/2 4 " 9th " 14 5 1-1/2 4 4 8
" 10th " 15 6 1-1/2 2 1/2 " 11th " 15 6 3 " 12th " 15 5 1/2 3 1-1/2
" 13th " 16 6 2 " 14th " 16 5 1/2 4 2 1 8 " 15th " 16 4 1 8 3 1/2 4
" 16th " 17 5 1/2 0 1 1-1/2 " 17th " 17 4 1 8 2 1/2 4 " 18th " 17 4 4 2 1-1/2 8
" 19th " 18 4 1 1 1 " 20th " 18 4 0 2 " 21st " 18 3 1 2 1
" 22nd " 19 2 1-1/2 1 1/2 " 23rd " 19 3 1/2 4 1 1 8 " 24th " 19 2 1-1/2 8 2 4
" 25th " 20 3 1 " 26th " 20 2 1 8 1 1/2 4 " 27th " 20 2 1/2 4 1 1 8
" 28th " 21 2 1/2 1-1/2 " 29th " 21 2 1 " 30th " 21 1 1-1/2 1 1/2
" 31st " 22 1 1 1 " 32nd " 22 1 1/2 4 0 1 8 " 33rd " 22 1 8 1-1/2 4
" 34th " 23 1-1/2 1/2 " 35th " 23 1 8 1/2 4 " 36th " 23 1 4 1/2 8 " 37th " pure gold.
Since it is rarely found that gold, which has been coined, does not amount to at least fifteen duellae gold in a bes, some make only twenty-eight needles, and some make them different from those already described, inasmuch as the alloy of gold with silver and copper is sometimes differently proportioned.
These needles are made:--
Gold. Silver. Copper. Duellae. Duellae Duellae Sextulae Sextulae Siliquae. Siliquae. The 1st of 15 6 1 8 2 1/2 4 " 2nd " 15 6 4 2 1-1/2 8 " 3rd " 15 5 1/2 3 1-1/2
" 4th " 16 6 1/2 1 1-1/2 " 5th " 16 5 1 8 2 1/2 4 " 6th " 16 4 1-1/2 8 3 4
" 7th " 17 5 1 4 1 1/2 8 " 8th " 17 5 4 1 1-1/2 8 " 9th " 17 4 1 4 2 1/2 8
" 10th " 18 4 1 1 1 " 11th " 18 4 2 " 12th " 18 3 1 2 1
" 13th " 19 3 1-1/2 4 1 8 " 14th " 19 3 1/2 4 1 1 8 " 15th " 19 2 1-1/2 4 2 8
" 16th " 20 3 1 " 17th " 20 2 1 1 " 18th " 20 2 2
" 19th " 21 2 1/2 4 1 8 " 20th " 21 1 1-1/2 4 1 8 " 21st " 21 1 1 8 1 1/2 4
" 22nd " 22 1 1 8 1/2 4 " 23rd " 22 1 1 1 " 24th " 22 1 1/2 4 1 8
" 25th " 23 1-1/2 4 8 " 26th " 23 1-1/2 1/2 " 27th " 23 1 8 1/2 4 " 28th " pure gold
Next follows the fourth kind of needles, by which we test silver coins which contain copper, or copper coins which contain silver. The bes by which we weigh the silver is divided in two different ways. It is either divided twelve times, into units of five drachmae and one scripulum each, which the ordinary people call nummi; each of these units we again divide into twenty-four units of four siliquae each, which the same ordinary people call a grenlin; or else the bes is divided into sixteen semunciae which are called loths, each of which is again divided into eighteen units of four siliquae each, which they call grenlin. Or else the bes is divided into sixteen semunciae, of which each is divided into four drachmae, and each drachma into four pfennige. Needles are made in accordance with each method of dividing the bes. According to the first method, to the number of twenty-four half nummi; according to the second method, to the number of thirty-one half semunciae, that is to say a sicilicus; for if the needles were made to the number of the smaller weights, the number of needles would again be too large, and not a few of them, by reason of the small difference in proportion of silver or copper, would have no significance. We test both bars and coined money composed of silver and copper by both scales. The one is as follows: the first needle is made of twenty-three parts of copper and one part silver; whereby, whatsoever bar or coin, when rubbed on the touchstone, colours it just as this needle does, in that bar or money there is one twenty-fourth part of silver, and so also, in accordance with the proportion of silver, is known the remaining proportion of the copper.
The 1st needle is made of 23 parts of copper and 1 of silver. " 2nd " " 22 " " 2 " " 3rd " " 21 " " 3 " " 4th " " 20 " " 4 " " 5th " " 19 " " 5 " " 6th " " 18 " " 6 " " 7th " " 17 " " 7 " " 8th " " 16 " " 8 " " 9th " " 15 " " 9 " " 10th " " 14 " " 10 " " 11th " " 13 " " 11 " " 12th " " 12 " " 12 " " 13th " " 11 " " 13 " " 14th " " 10 " " 14 " " 15th " " 9 " " 15 " " 16th " " 8 " " 16 " " 17th " " 7 " " 17 " " 18th " " 6 " " 18 " " 19th " " 5 " " 19 " " 20th " " 4 " " 20 " " 21st " " 3 " " 21 " " 22nd " " 2 " " 22 " " 23rd " " 1 " " 23 " " 24th of pure silver.
The other method of making needles is as follows:--
Copper. Silver. Semunciae Sicilici. Semunciae Sicilici.
The 1st is of 15 1 " 2nd " " 14 1 1 1 " 3rd " " 14 2
" 4th " " 13 1 2 1 " 5th " " 13 3 " 6th " " 12 1 3 1
" 7th " " 12 4 " 8th " " 11 1 4 1 " 9th " " 11 5
" 10th " " 10 1 5 1 " 11th " " 10 6 " 12th " " 9 1 6 1
" 13th " " 9 7 " 14th " " 8 1 7 1 " 15th " " 8 8
" 16th " " 7 1 8 1 " 17th " " 7 9 " 18th " " 6 1 9 1
" 19th " " 6 10 " 20th " " 5 1 10 1 " 21st " " 5 11
" 22nd " " 4 1 11 1 " 23rd " " 4 12 " 24th " " 3 1 12 1
" 25th " " 3 13 " 26th " " 2 1 13 1 " 27th " " 2 14
" 28th " " 1 1 14 1 " 29th " " 1 15 " 30th " " 1 15 1 " 31st of pure silver.
So much for this. Perhaps I have used more words than those most highly skilled in the art may require, but it is necessary for the understanding of these matters.
I will now speak of the weights, of which I have frequently made mention. Among mining people these are of two kinds, that is, the greater weights and the lesser weights. The centumpondium is the first and largest weight, and of course consists of one hundred librae, and for that reason is called a hundred weight.
The various weights are:--
1st = 100 librae = centumpondium. 2nd = 50 " 3rd = 25 " 4th = 16 " 5th = 8 " 6th = 4 " 7th = 2 " 8th = 1 libra.
This libra consists of sixteen unciae, and the half part of the libra is the selibra, which our people call a mark, and consists of eight unciae, or, as they divide it, of sixteen semunciae:--
9th = 8 unciae. 10th = 8 semunciae. 11th = 4 " 12th = 2 " 13th = 1 semuncia. 14th = 1 sicilicus. 15th = 1 drachma. 16th = 1 dimidi-drachma.
The above is how the "greater" weights are divided. The "lesser" weights are made of silver or brass or copper. Of these, the first and largest generally weighs one drachma, for it is necessary for us to weigh, not only ore, but also metals to be assayed, and smaller quantities of lead. The first of these weights is called a centumpondium and the number of librae in it corresponds to the larger scale, being likewise one hundred.
The 1st is called 1 centumpondium. " 2nd " 50 librae. " 3rd " 25 " " 4th " 16 " " 5th " 8 " " 6th " 4 " " 7th " 2 " " 8th " 1 " " 9th " 1 selibra. " 10th " 8 semunciae. " 11th " 4 " " 12th " 2 " " 13th " 1 " " 14th " 1 sicilicus.
The fourteenth is the last, for the proportionate weights which correspond with a drachma and half a drachma are not used. On all these weights of the lesser scale, are written the numbers of librae and of semunciae. Some copper assayers divide both the lesser and greater scale weights into divisions of a different scale. Their largest weight of the greater scale weighs one hundred and twelve librae, which is the first unit of measurement.
1st = 112 librae. 2nd = 64 " 3rd = 32 " 4th = 16 " 5th = 8 " 6th = 4 " 7th = 2 " 8th = 1 " 9th = 1 selibra or sixteen semunciae. 10th = 8 semunciae. 11th = 4 " 12th = 2 " 13th = 1 "
As for the selibra of the lesser weights, which our people, as I have often said, call a mark, and the Romans call a bes, coiners who coin gold, divide it just like the greater weights scale, into twenty-four units of two sextulae each, and each unit of two sextulae is divided into four semi-sextulae and each semi-sextula into three units of four siliquae each. Some also divide the separate units of four siliquae into four individual siliquae, but most, omitting the semi-sextulae, then divide the double sextula into twelve units of four siliquae each, and do not divide these into four individual siliquae. Thus the first and greatest unit of measurement, which is the bes, weighs twenty-four double sextulae.
The 2nd = 12 double sextulae. " 3rd = 6 " " " 4th = 3 " " " 5th = 2 " " " 6th = 1 " " " 7th = 2 semi-sextulae or four semi-sextulae. " 8th = 1 semi-sextula or 3 units of 4 siliquae each. " 9th = 2 units of four siliquae each. " 10th = 1 " " "
Coiners who mint silver also divide the bes of the lesser weights in the same way as the greater weights; our people, indeed, divide it into sixteen semunciae, and the semuncia into eighteen units of four siliquae each.
There are ten weights which are placed in the other pan of the balance, when they weigh the silver which remains from the copper that has been consumed, when they assay the alloy with fire.
The 1st = 16 semunciae = 1 bes. " 2nd = 8 " " 3rd = 4 " " 4th = 2 " " 5th = 1 " or 18 units of 4 siliquae each. " 6th = 9 units of 4 siliquae each. " 7th = 6 " " " 8th = 3 " " " 9th = 2 " " " 10th = 1 " "
The coiners of Nuremberg who mint silver, divide the bes into sixteen semunciae, but divide the semuncia into four drachmae, and the drachma into four pfennige. They employ nine weights.
The 1st = 16 semunciae. " 2nd = 8 " " 3rd = 4 " " 4th = 2 " " 5th = 1 "
For they divide the bes in the same way as our own people, but since they divide the semuncia into four drachmae,
the 6th weight = 2 drachmae. " 7th " = 1 drachma or 4 pfennige. " 8th " = 2 pfennige. " 9th " = 1 pfennig.
The men of Cologne and Antwerp divide the bes into twelve units of five drachmae and one scripulum, which weights they call nummi. Each of these they again divide into twenty-four units of four siliquae each, which they call grenlins. They have ten weights, of which
the 1st = 12 nummi = 1 bes. " 2nd = 6 " " 3rd = 3 " " 4th = 2 " " 5th = 1 " = 24 units of 4 siliquae each. " 6th = 12 units of 4 siliquae each. " 7th = 6 " " " 8th = 3 " " " 9th = 2 " " " 10th = 1 " "
And so with them, just as with our own people, the mark is divided into two hundred and eighty-eight grenlins, and by the people of Nuremberg it is divided into two hundred and fifty-six pfennige. Lastly, the Venetians divide the bes into eight unciae. The uncia into four sicilici, the sicilicus into thirty-six siliquae. They make twelve weights, which they use whenever they wish to assay alloys of silver and copper. Of these
the 1st = 8 unciae = 1 bes. " 2nd = 4 " " 3rd = 2 " " 4th = 1 " or 4 sicilici. " 5th = 2 sicilici. " 6th = 1 sicilicus. " 7th = 18 siliquae. " 8th = 9 " " 9th = 6 " " 10th = 3 " " 11th = 2 " " 12th = 1 "
Since the Venetians divide the bes into eleven hundred and fifty-two siliquae, or two hundred and eighty-eight units of 4 siliquae each, into which number our people also divide the bes, they thus make the same number of siliquae, and both agree, even though the Venetians divide the bes into smaller divisions.
This, then, is the system of weights, both of the greater and the lesser kinds, which metallurgists employ, and likewise the system of the lesser weights which coiners and merchants employ, when they are assaying metals and coined money. The bes of the larger weight with which they provide themselves when they weigh large masses of these things, I have explained in my work De Mensuris et Ponderibus, and in another book, De Precio Metallorum et Monetis.
There are three small balances by which we weigh ore, metals, and fluxes. The first, by which we weigh lead and fluxes, is the largest among these smaller balances, and when eight unciae (of the greater weights) are placed in one of its pans, and the same number in the other, it sustains no damage. The second is more delicate, and by this we weigh the ore or the metal, which is to be assayed; this is well able to carry one centumpondium of the lesser weights in one pan, and in the other, ore or metal as heavy as that weight. The third is the most delicate, and by this we weigh the beads of gold or silver, which, when the assay is completed, settle in the bottom of the cupel. But if anyone weighs lead in the second balance, or an ore in the third, he will do them much injury.
Whatsoever small amount of metal is obtained from a centumpondium of the lesser weights of ore or metal alloy, the same greater weight of metal is smelted from a centumpondium of the greater weight of ore or metal alloy.
END OF BOOK VII.
The first explicit records of assaying are the anonymous booklets published in German early in the 16th Century under the title Probierbuechlein. Therein the art is disclosed well advanced toward maturity, so far as concerns gold and silver, with some notes on lead and copper. We refer the reader to Appendix B for fuller discussion of these books, but we may repeat here that they are a collection of disconnected recipes lacking in arrangement, the items often repeated, and all apparently the inheritance of wisdom passed from father to son over many generations. It is obviously intended as a sort of reminder to those already skilled in the art, and would be hopeless to a novice. Apart from some notes in Biringuccio (Book III, Chaps. 1 and 2) on assaying gold and silver, there is nothing else prior to De Re Metallica. Agricola was familiar with these works and includes their material in this chapter. The very great advance which his account represents can only be appreciated by comparison, but the exhaustive publication of other works is foreign to the purpose of these notes. Agricola introduces system into the arrangement of his materials, describes implements, and gives a hundred details which are wholly omitted from the previous works, all in a manner which would enable a beginner to learn the art. Furthermore, the assaying of lead, copper, tin, quicksilver, iron, and bismuth, is almost wholly new, together with the whole of the argument and explanations. We would call the attention of students of the history of chemistry to the general oversight of these early 16th Century attempts at analytical chemistry, for in them lie the foundations of that science. The statement sometimes made that Agricola was the first assayer, is false if for no other reason than that science does not develop with such strides at any one human hand. He can, however, fairly be accounted as the author of the first proper text-book upon assaying. Those familiar with the art will be astonished at the small progress made since his time, for in his pages appear most of the reagents and most of the critical operations in the dry analyses of gold, silver, lead, copper, tin, bismuth, quicksilver, and iron of to-day. Further, there will be recognised many of the "kinks" of the art used even yet, such as the method of granulation, duplicate assays, the "assay ton" method of weights, the use of test lead, the introduction of charges in leaf lead, and even the use of beer instead of water to damp bone-ash.
The following table is given of the substances mentioned requiring some comment, and the terms adopted in this book, with notes for convenience in reference. The German terms are either from Agricola's Glossary of De Re Metallica, his Interpretatio, or the German Translation. We have retained the original German spelling. The fifth column refers to the page where more ample notes are given:--
Terms Latin. German. Remarks. Further adopted. Notes.
Alum Alumen Alaun Either potassium p. 564 or ammonia alum
Ampulla Ampulla Kolb A distillation jar
Antimony Stibium Spiesglas Practically always p. 428 antimony sulphide
Aqua valens Aqua valens Scheidewasser Mostly nitric acid p. 439 or aqua
Argol Feces vini Die Crude tartar p. 234 siccae weinheffen
Ash of lead Nigrum Artificial lead p. 237 plumbum sulphide cinereum
Ash of musk ivy Sal ex Salalkali Mostly potash p. 560 (Salt made anthyllidis from) cinere factus
Ashes which Cineres quo Mostly potash p. 559 wool-dyers use infectores lanarum utuntur
Assay Venas experiri Probiren
Assay furnace Fornacula Probir ofen "Little" furnace
Azure Caeruleum Lasur Partly copper p. 110 carbonate (azurite) partly silicate
Bismuth Plumbum Wismut Bismuth p. 433 Cinereum
Bitumen Bitumen Bergwachs p. 581
Blast furnace Prima fornax Schmeltzofen
Borax Chrysocolla ex Borras; Tincar p. 560 nitro confecta; chrysocolla quam boracem nominant
Burned alum Alumen coctum Gesottener Probably p. 565 alaun dehydrated alum
Cadmia (1) Furnace p. 112 (see note accretions (2) 8, p. 112) Calamine (3) Zinc blende (4) Cobalt arsenical sulphides
Camphor Camphora Campffer p. 238
Chrysocolla called borax (see borax)
Chrysocolla Chrysocolla Berggruen und Partly p. 110 (copper Schifergruen chrysocolla, mineral) partly malachite
Copper filings Aeris scobs Kupferfeilich Apparently finely p. 233 elimata divided copper metal
Copper flowers Aeris flos Kupferbraun Cupric oxide p. 538
Copper scales Aeris squamae Kupfer Probably cupric hammerschlag oxide oder kessel braun
Copper minerals (see note 8, p. 109)
Crucible Catillus Dreieckicht- See illustration p. 229 (triangular) triangularis schirbe
Cupel Catillus Capelle cinereus
Cupellation Secunda Treibherd furnace fornax
Flux Additamentum Zusetze p. 232
Furnace Cadmia Mitlere und accretions fornacum obere offenbrueche
Galena Lapis Glantz Lead sulphide p. 110 plumbarius
Glass-gall Recrementum Glassgallen Skimmings from p. 235 vitri glass melting
Grey antimony or Stibi or Spiesglas Antimony sulphide, p. 428 stibium stibium stibnite
Hearth-lead Molybdaena Herdplei The saturated p. 476 furnace bottoms from cupellation
Hoop (iron) Circulus Ring A forge for p. 226 ferreus crucibles
Iron filings Ferri scobs Eisen feilich Metallic iron elimata
Iron scales Squamae ferri Eisen Partly iron oxide hammerschlag
Iron slag Recrementum Sinder ferri
Lead ash Cinis plumbi Pleiasche Artificial lead p. 237 nigri sulphide
Lead granules Globuli Gekornt plei Granulated lead plumbei
Lead ochre Ochra Pleigeel Modern massicot p. 232 plumbaria (PbO)
Lees of aqua Feces aquarum Scheidewasser Uncertain p. 234 which separates quae aurum ab heffe gold from argento silver secernunt
Dried lees of Siccae feces Heffe des Argol p. 234 vinegar aceti essigs
Dried lees of Feces vini Wein heffen Argol p. 234 wine siccae
Limestone Saxum calcis Kalchstein
Litharge Spuma argenti Glette
Lye Lixivium Lauge durch Mostly potash p. 233 asschen gemacht
Muffle Tegula Muffel Latin, literally "Roof-tile"
Operculum Operculum Helm oder Helmet or cover alembick for a distillation jar
Orpiment Auripigmentum Operment Yellow sulphide p. 111 of arsenic (As{2}S{3})
Pyrites Pyrites Kis Rather a genus p. 112 of sulphides, than iron pyrite in particular
Pyrites (Cakes Panes ex Stein Iron or Copper p. 350 from) pyrite matte conflati
Realgar Sandaraca Rosgeel Red sulphide of p. 111 arsenic (AsS)
Red lead Minium Menning Pb{3}O{4} p. 232
Roasted copper Aes ustum Gebrandt Artificial p. 233 kupffer copper sulphide (?)
Salt Sal Saltz NaCl p. 233
Salt (Rock) Sal fossilis Berg saltz NaCl p. 233
Sal Sal A stock flux? p. 236 artificiosus artificiosus
Sal ammoniac Sal Salarmoniac NH{4}Cl p. 560 ammoniacus
Saltpetre Halinitrum Salpeter KNO{3} p. 561
Salt (refined) Sal facticius NaCl purgatus
Sal tostus Sal tostus Geroest saltz Apparently p. 233 simply heated or melted common salt
Sal Sal Geroest saltz p. 233 torrefactus torrefactus
Salt (melted) Sal Geflossen Melted salt or p. 233 liquefactus saltz salt glass
Scorifier Catillus Scherbe fictilis
Schist Saxum fissile Schifer
Silver minerals (see note 8, p. 108)
Slag Recrementum Schlacken
Soda Nitrum Mostly soda from p. 558 Egypt, Na{2}CO{3}
Stones which Lapides qui Flues Quartz and p. 380 easily melt facile igni fluorspar liquescunt
Sulphur Sulfur Schwefel p. 579
Tophus Tophus Topstein Marl(?) p. 233
Touchstone Coticula Goldstein
Venetian glass Venetianum vitrum
Verdigris Aerugo Gruenspan Copper p. 440 oder sub-acetate Spanschgruen
Vitriol Atramentum Kupferwasser Mostly FeSO{4} p. 572 sutorium
White schist Saxum fissile Weisser p. 234 album schifer
Weights (see Appendix).
We have adopted "flux" because the old English equivalent for all these materials was "flux," although in modern nomenclature the term is generally restricted to those substances which, by chemical combination in the furnace, lower the melting point of some of the charge. The "additions" of Agricola, therefore, include reducing, oxidizing, sulphurizing, desulphurizing, and collecting agents as well as fluxes. A critical examination of the fluxes mentioned in the next four pages gives point to the Author's assertion that "some are of a very complicated nature." However, anyone of experience with home-taught assayers has come in contact with equally extraordinary combinations. The four orders of "additions" enumerated are quite impossible to reconcile from a modern metallurgical point of view.
Copper filings Aeris scobs elimata. Copper scales Aeris squamae. Copper flowers Aeris flos. Roasted copper Aes ustum.
The first of these was no doubt finely divided copper metal; the second, third, and fourth were probably all cupric oxide. According to Agricola (De Nat. Fos., p. 352), the scales were the result of hammering the metal; the flowers came off the metal when hot bars were quenched in water, and a third kind were obtained from calcining the metal. "Both flowers (flos) and hammer-scales (squama) have the same properties as crematum copper.... The particles of flower copper are finer than scales or crematum copper." If we assume that the verb uro used in De Re Metallica is of the same import as cremo in the De Natura Fossilium, we can accept this material as being merely cupric oxide, but the aes ustum of Pliny--Agricola's usual source of technical nomenclature--is probably an artificial sulphide. Dioscorides (V, 47), who is apparently the source of Pliny's information, says:--"Of chalcos cecaumenos, the best is red, and pulverized resembles the colour of cinnabar; if it turns black, it is over-burnt. It is made from broken ship nails put into a rough earthen pot, with alternate layers of equal parts of sulphur and salt. The opening should be smeared with potter's clay and the pot put in the furnace until it is thoroughly heated," etc. Pliny (XXXIV, 23) states: "Moreover Cyprian copper is roasted in crude earthen pots with an equal amount of sulphur; the apertures of the pots are well luted, and they are kept in the furnace until the pot is thoroughly heated. Some add salt, others use alumen instead of sulphur, others add nothing, but only sprinkle it with vinegar."
Soda (nitrum). Lye. "Ashes which wool-dyers use." "Salt made from the ashes of musk ivy."
The last three are certainly potash, probably impure. While the first might be either potash or soda, the fact that the last three are mentioned separately, together with other evidence, convinces us that by the first is intended the nitrum so generally imported into Europe from Egypt during the Middle Ages. This imported salt was certainly the natural bicarbonate, and we have, therefore, used the term "soda."
Salt Sal. Rock salt Sal fossilis. "Made" salt Sal facticius. Refined salt Sal purgatius. Melted salt Sal liquefactus.
And in addition sal tostus and sal torrefactus. Sal facticius is used in distinction from rock-salt. The melted salt would apparently be salt-glass. What form the sal tostus and sal torrefactus could have we cannot say, however, but they were possibly some form of heated salt; they may have been combinations after the order of sal artificiosus (see p. 236).
Dried lees of vinegar (siccae feces aceti; Interpretatio, die heffe des essigs). This would also be crude tartar. Pliny (XXIII, 32) says: "The lees of vinegar (faex aceti); owing to the more acrid material are more aggravating in their effects.... When combined with melanthium it heals the bites of dogs and crocodiles."
This is not the first mention of this scheme of lesser weights, as it appears in the Probierbuechlein (1500? see Appendix B) and Biringuccio (1540). For a more complete discussion of weights and measures see Appendix C. For convenience, we repeat here the Roman scale, although, as will be seen in the Appendix, Agricola used the Latin terms in many places merely as nomenclature equivalents of the old German scale.
Ozs. dwts. Troy gr. Grains. per short ton. 1 Siliqua 2.87 Per Centumpondium 0 3 9 6 Siliquae = 1 Scripulum 17.2 " " 1 0 6 4 Scripula = 1 Sextula 68.7 " " 4 1 0 6 Sextulae = 1 Uncia 412.2 " " 24 6 2 12 Unciae = 1 Libra 4946.4 " " 291 13 8 100 Librae = 1 Centumpondium 494640.0
However Agricola may occasionally use
16 Unciae = 1 Libra 6592.0 (?) 100 Librae = 1 Centumpondium 659200.0 (?)
Also
Oz. dwts. gr. per short ton. 1 Scripulum 17.2 Per Centumpondium 1 0 6 3 Scripula = 1 Drachma 51.5 " " 3 0 19 2 Drachmae = 1 Sicilicus 103.0 " " 6 1 15 4 Sicilici = 1 Uncia 412.2 " " 24 6 12 8 Unciae = 1 Bes 3297.6 " " 194 12 0
ROMAN SCALE. OLD GERMAN SCALE. 6 Siliquae = 1 Scripulum 3 Grenlin = 1 Gran 4 Scripula = 1 Sextula 4 Gran = 1 Krat 2 Sextulae = 1 Duella 24 Kratt = 1 Mark 24 Duellae = 1 Bes or 24 Grenlin = 1 "Nummus" 12 "Nummi" = 1 Mark
Also the following scales are applied to fineness by Agricola:--
3 Scripula = 1 Drachma 4 Pfennige = 1 Quintlein 2 Drachmae = 1 Sicilicus 4 Quintlein = 1 Loth 2 Sicilici = 1 Semuncia 16 Loth = 1 Mark 16 Semunciae = 1 Bes
The term "nummus," a coin, given above and in the text, appears in the German translation as pfennig as applied to both German scales, but as they are of different values, we have left Agricola's adaptation in one scale to avoid confusion. The Latin terms adopted by Agricola are given below, together with the German:--
Number in one Value in Roman Term. German Term. Mark or Bes. Siliquae.
Siliqua 1152 1
"Unit of 4 Siliquae" Grenlin 288 4
Pfennig 256 --
Scripulum Scruple (?) 192 6
Semi-sextula Gran 96 12
Drachma Quintlein 64 18
Sextula Halb Krat 48 24
Sicilicus Halb Loth 32 36
Duella Krat 24 48
Semuncia Loth 16 72
"Unit of 5 Drachmae "Nummus" 12 96 & 1 Scripulum"
Uncia Untzen 8 144
Bes Mark 1 1152
While the proportions in a bes or mark are the same in both scales, the actual weight values are vastly different--for instance, the mark contained about 3609.6, and the bes 3297 Troy Grains. Agricola also uses:
Selibra Halb-pfundt Libra Pfundt Centumpondium Centner.
As the Roman libra contains 12 unciae and the German pfundt 16 untzen, the actual weights of these latter quantities are still further apart--the former 4946 and the latter 7219 Troy grains.
· · ·
End of part 19 of 36
Continue readingBook VIII (Part 1)
Starvard